Safety as a driver of technological development in hydrogen refueling stations infrastructure

    This work presents a systematic engineering analysis of configurations of hydrogen refueling stations (HRS) in order to identify the factors that determine the reliability, safety, energy efficiency, and feasibility of using different architectures in regionally heterogeneous operating conditions. The study is based on real-world data from hydrogen stations, the results of demonstration and commercial projects, and a review of peer-reviewed scientific and technical literature.
    It has been shown that the key problems of HRS development are predominantly of an engineering nature and are not related to the fundamental feasibility of technologies, but rather to the operational stability of equipment, the high energy intensity of technological operations, and the degradation of materials under cyclic loads and high pressures. An analysis of failures and operational availability indicators has revealed that high-pressure compressor systems, filling dispensers, and control subsystems account for the majority of unscheduled station shutdowns. The nature of failures is closely related to the pressure and temperature cycling modes, which highlights the crucial role of fatigue processes, thermomechanical degradation, and hydrogen embrittlement of metal components.
    It has been established that the processes of hydrogen compression, pre-cooling, and storage account for up to 40% of the total energy consumption of gas stations, significantly affecting the operational costs and economic efficiency of the infrastructure. An analysis of modern engineering solutions shows that optimizing refueling protocols and managing cascaded storage systems can reduce the specific energy consumption of the refueling process by 9-45%, depending on the station’s operational intensity. The greatest effect is achieved by aligning the operating modes of compressors and cooling systems with the actual demand profile.
    The paper pays special attention to measures to improve the reliability of gas stations. It is shown that the use of modularity principles and redundancy of critical subsystems, primarily compressor modules and pre-cooling systems, can reduce the probability of a complete station shutdown by 30-50% in the event of a failure of individual components. In combination with predictive maintenance based on monitoring of pressure, temperature, vibrations, and leaks, such solutions significantly enhance the operational stability of the infrastructure. The combined implementation of these measures allows for an increase in the operational availability of gas stations from the typical 94-95% for first-generation stations to levels of around 98-99%, approaching the performance of mature gas-fuel systems.
    The material science aspects of HRS operation are considered at the level of generally accepted physical mechanisms of hydrogen embrittlement and their engineering consequences. It is shown that the choice of austenitic stainless steels with optimized microstructure, as well as the use of composite high-pressure vessels of type IV, with strict control of pressure and temperature cycles, allow to increase the resource of high-pressure elements by 2-3 times compared to traditional solutions.
    A significant result of the work is the development of a classification of engineering constraints for hydrogen stations and a decision-making matrix based on it for distributing station types depending on regional operating conditions. It has been shown that attempts to apply unified hydrogen station architectures lead either to excessive capital costs or to a decrease in the reliability and availability of the infrastructure. The choice of station type should be differentiated based on regional conditions, taking into account the demand profile, hydrogen logistics, energy infrastructure, climate factors, and personnel qualifications.
    Based on the analysis, a step-by-step engineering roadmap has been developed to enhance the technical maturity of hydrogen refueling stations, from short-term operational improvements and equipment optimization to the long-term transition to the concept of smart hydrogen refueling stations using digital twins and adaptive control. This evolutionary approach demonstrates how to simultaneously improve the reliability, safety, and energy efficiency of hydrogen refueling infrastructure without relying on rigid technological uniformity.
    The results of the work form an engineering-based basis for the design, operation, and strategic planning of hydrogen refueling stations and can be used in the development of regulatory documents and national programs for the development of hydrogen energy.

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