Economics of hydrogen energy of the green transition in the world and Russia. Part III. Progress in nuclear-hydrogen programs of leading countries

Part III of this five-part international study consolidates and extends the conceptual, methodological, and technological foundations established in Parts I-II, presenting the first integrated assessment of how diverse European states contribute to the formation of a continental nuclear-hydrogen architecture. Building on the theoretical model of the nuclear-hydrogen paradigm and the global typology of nuclear-hydrogen powers developed earlier in the study, this article analyzes the emerging strategies of Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Serbia countries whose roles remain underrepresented in existing research yet are increasingly influential in shaping Europe’s decarbonization trajectory.

The analysis demonstrates how non-nuclear microstates (Luxembourg, Liechtenstein) become regulatory, financial, and logistical nodes of the hydrogen economy through participation in cross-border certification systems, sustainablefinance mechanisms, and the European Hydrogen Backbone. Germany, following its nuclear phase-out, is constructing one of Europe’s most ambitious hydrogen ecosystems, supported by advanced research in thermochemical cycles, SMR safety, and large-scale electrolysis. Poland and Hungary are building next-generation nuclear platforms (AP1000, VVER-1200), forming the technological basis for future high-temperature hydrogen production. Serbia is establishing the institutional foundations of a civilian nuclear program and exploring SMR-based hydrogen generation as a strategic vector of national modernization.

Integrating these country-level trajectories with the author’s original technological concepts including the nuclearnitrogen cycle, plasma electrolysis, cryogenic hydrogen infrastructure, and nuclear-metallurgical coupling Part III forms the central analytical axis of the entire study. It links the theoretical paradigm of Parts I-II with the strategic R&D roadmap and the hydrogen-civilization framework developed in Parts IV-V, establishing a unified multilevel model for understanding the evolution of nuclear-hydrogen systems in Europe and beyond.

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123. .World Nuclear Association. Nuclear power in Russia. London: World Nuclear Association; 2025. [124].Kurchatov Institute. Research on thermochemical hydrogen production using high- temperature reactors (GT-MGR project). – Moscow: KI Publications; 2023.

124. .Hydrogen Europe. Russia's participation in international hydrogen initiatives and export corridors. Brussels: Hydrogen Europe Reports; 2024.

125. .Government of Montenegro, Ministry of Economy. Energy policy of Montenegro until 2030. Government Publications. Podgorica; 2011.

126. .Hofhuis P., Cretti G., Popović M., Vojvodić H., Zweers W. The green agenda: providing breathing space for Western Balkans citizens? Clingendael policy brief. Netherlands Institute of International Relations ‘Clingendael’; 2021. The Hague, July 2021.

127. .Western Balkans Investment Framework. Investment projects in renewable energy and hydrogen infrastructure in Montenegro. Brussels: WBIF Reports; 2024.

128. .European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Financing renewable and hydrogen projects in Montenegro. London: EBRD Publications; 2023.

129. .Trans-Balkan Electricity Corridor Project. Integration of Western Balkans electricity networks with the EU. Belgrade: Regional Energy Community Secretariat; 2022.

130. .Gusev AL. Cleaning system for corrosive gases and hydrogen // Chem Petrol Eng. – 2009; 45:640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10556-010-9251-7.

131. .Bedulina D. S., Bliznetskaya E. A., Gusev A. L., Davydova A. V., Zasursky I. I., Zimov N. S., Lanshina T. A., Lemeshko N. A., Makarov I. A., Pisarevskaya A. M., Revich B. A., Romanovskaya A. A., Safonov G. V., Senova O. N., Servetnik V. V., Serebritsky I. A., Sidorovich V. A., Titov M. A., Trischenko N. D., Usov E. I., et al. Report of the permanent commission on environmental rights of the presidential council for the development of civil society and human rights “green turn” // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2020; 19(24):131-57.

132. .Goltsov V. A., Veziroglu T. N., Goltsova L. F., Gusev A. L. Up-to-day status of hydrogen economy and hydrogen vehicles: economy, techniques, infrastructure // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2003. – № S2. – Pp. 18-9.

133. .Goltsov V. A., Veziroglu T. N., Goltsova L. F., Gusev A. L. The current state of the hydrogen economy and hydrogen transport: economics, technology, infrastructure // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2003. – № S1. – Pp. 21-2.

134. .Gusev A. L. The main environmental problems of the Nizhny Novgorod region and the ways of transition to a hydrogen economy // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2006; 1.S:13-24.

135. .Gusev A. L. Hydrogen for progress. In: The Second International Conference Alternative sources of energy for big cities; 2006, p. 22.

136. .Gusev A. L. First international workshop on safety and economics of hydrogen transport-IFSSEHT-2000 // Atom. – 2000; 14:44-6.

137. .Gusev A. L., Veziroglu T. N., Trutnev Yu. A. WCAEE-2006 (Congress Volga) – proceedings 1 // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2006; 5(37):152.

138. .Gusev A. L., Veziroglu T. N., Trutnev Yu. A. WCAEE-2006 (Congress Volga) – Proceedings 2 // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2006; 6(38):116.

139. .Gusev A. L., Veziroglu T. N., Trutnev Yu. A. WCAEE-2006 (Congress Volga) – Proceedings 3 // Alternative Energy and Ecology. – 2006; 7(39):120.

140. .Gusev A. L., Veziroglu T. N., Trutnev Yu. A. WCAEE-2006 (Congress Volga) – Proceedings 4 // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2006; 8(40):144.

141. .Gusev A. L., Veziroglu T. N., Trutnev Yu. A. WCAEE-2006 (Congress Volga) – Proceedings 5 // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2006; 9(41):156.

142. .Gusev A. L., Veziroglu T. N., Trutnev Yu. A. WCAEE-2006 (Congress Volga) – Proceedings 6 // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2006; 10(42):84.

143. .Gusev A. L. Energy generating element EGE-1 // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2006; 8(40):125.

144. .A. L. Gusev. Project Report #3658p of ISTC - NISSAN MOTOR CORP. – STC TATA Project “Choice and analytical studies of conceptual V(N2-H2) hybrid nitrogen-hydrogen vehicle designs compared to the prototype FCV fuel cell vehicle”.

145. .Gusev A. L., Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V. Effect of electric induced selective drift of solvated ions in solutions of salt in polar dielectric liquids (Scientific review) // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2014; 8(148):89-97.

146. .Kazaryan M., Shamanin I. Physics of the phenomenon of electrically induced elements separation in solutions of salts in liquid polar dielectrics // Armenian Journal of Physics. – 2009; 2(3):12.

147. .Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V., Mel'Nik N. N., Lomov I. V., Dolgopolov S. Yu. The structure and radiophysical properties of solutions of salts in liquid polar dielectrics // Russ J Phys Chem B. – 2009; 3(1):40-5. http://www.scopus. com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-67650480288&partnerID=40&md5=086c1215ef851390ac9db997fba1e76aDOCUMENTTYPE. Article SOURCE: Scopus.

148. .Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V., Lomov I. V., Dolgopolov S. Yu., Dyachenko A. N., Lobanov A. N., Muravyov E. N. Electro- and magnetically induced transfer of solvated ions in an isolated salt solution in a polar dielectric // Theoretical Foundations of Chemical Technology. – 2010; 44(1):9.

149. .Dolgopolov S. Yu., Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V., Lomov I. V. Separation of solvated cerium and lead cations in an aqueous solution of a mixture of nitrates under the action of an asymmetric electric field of low intensity // Perspektivnye materialy, special issue February. – 2010; (8):4.

150. .Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V., Lomov I. V., Dolgopolov S. Yu., D'Yachenko A. N., Lobanov A. N., Murav'ev E. N. Electrically and magnetically induced transfer of solvated ions in an isolated solution of salt in a polar dielectric // Theor Found Chem Eng. – 2010; 44(1):58-66. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?eid=2-s2.0-77649269346&partnerID=40&md5=754e6da5109c6e48e6ac89d0cd6f3beaDOCUMENTTYPE. Article SOURCE: Scopus.

151. .Dolgopolov S. Yu., Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V., Lomov I. V. Spatial distribution of inertially different solvated cations during separation by an external asymmetric electric field // Perspektivnye materialy. – February, 2011; (10):5. Special Issue.

152. .Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V. The separation of solvated cations and anions under electromagnetic wave action. In: Proceedings 11th Workshop on separation phenomena in liquids and gases, Saint-Petersburg, June 13-18, 2010. – St. Petersburg; 2011, p. 9.

153. .Kazaryan M. A., Shamanin I. V., Lomov I. V., Dolgopolov S. Y., Lobanov A. N. Formation of associates of solvated cations in salt solutions in polar dielectric liquids // Bull Lebedev Phys Inst. – 2011; 38(9):247-54. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record. url?eid=2-s2.0-80053544081&partnerID=40&md5=d57cc70c563150be8f89cbf2b77cd1a4DOCUMENTTYPE. Article SOURCE: Scopus.

154. .Shamanin I. V., Kazaryan M. A. The use of electrical induced selective drift of solvated ions in solutions phenomena in technologies // International Journal of Research in Physical Chemistry. – 2012; 2(4):5.

155. .Shamanin I. V., Kazaryan M. A., Lomov I. V., Dolgopolov S. Yu. Application of electrical induced selective drift of solvated ions in solutions phenomena in chemical technologies. In: Proceedings – 2012 7th international Forum on strategic technology (2012), IFOST; 2012, 6357757. http://www.scopus.com/inward/record. url?eid=2-s2.0-84871839850&partnerID=40&md5=99d57055fe2204310ad12ff83e2f5262DOCUMENTTYPE:- ConferencePaperSOURCE:Scopus.

156. .Gusev A. L., Kazaryan M. A., Lomov I. V., Trutnev Yu. A., Shamanin I. V. The action of an external asymmetric electric field on salt solutions in dielectric liquids: physics of theprocess and applications // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2013; 05/2(126):12.

157. .Gusev A. L., Kazaryan M. A., Lomov I. V., Trutnev Yu. A., Shamanin I. V. Structuring solutions in polar dielectric liquids and separation of solvated ions under the action of an external asymmetric electric field // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2013; 06/2:13.

158. .Gusev A. L. Theoretical foundations of superinsulation: emergency regimes of superinsulation of cryostats 1. Effusion-induced hydrogen and heat-conducting instability // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2002; 4.S:28-39.

159. .Gusev A. L. Electrosorption phenomena in screen-vacuum insulation of hydrogen reservoirs // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2007; 4.S:204-5.

160. .Gusev A. L. Residual pressure anomalies in superinsulation during emergency operation of cryogenic objects // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2000; 1.S:55-75.

161. .Gusev A. L. Emergency operation modes of superinsulation of hydrogen cryostats // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2003; 1.S.:49-50.

162. .A. L. Gusev, M. D. Hampton, I. V. Zolotuchin, J. E. Kalinin, A. T. Ponomarenko, V. S. Travkin, T. N. Veziroglu. SUPERINSULATION: NEW EFFECTS, STRUCTURES, Design PRINCIPLES. Extended Abstracts of the «Eurofillers’ 01» Conference July 9-12, 2001, Lodz (Poland) Technical University of Lodz., C-10, pp.102/C-10/1 – 103/C-10/2.

163. .Gusev A. L. Features of the processes of storage and transportation of large amounts of hydrogen. I. Low-temperature regeneration of built-in cryoadsorption devices of large cryogenic hydrogen tanks // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2002; 4.S:56-68.

164. .Gusev A. L. Thermodynamic peculiarities of low-temperature regeneration of cryosorption devices in heat-insulation cavities of hydrogenous cryogenic tanks // Int J Hydrogen Energy. – 2001; 8:863.

165. .Gusev A. L. Brief information on the project: "Electrosorption phenomena in the layers of screen-vacuum thermal insulation" // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2000; 1:229-33.

166. .A. L. Gusev, E. V. Kudel'kina, T. N. Veziroglu, M. D. Hampton. Electrosorption phenomena in layers of shield-vacuum heat insulation of hydrogen reservoirs in emergency operating conditions. The proceedings for the 30th ISTC Japan workshop on advanced catalysis technologies in Russia, April 12-19, 2004, visits to companies in Japan, sponsor: Ministry of education, culture, sports, science and technology (MEXT), Japan-Russia business cooperation committee; International Science and Technology Center (ISTC). – P. 231.

167. .Gusev A. L., Kudelkina E. V., Hampton M. D., Veziroglu T. N. Electrosorption phenomena in the layers of screen-vacuum body insulation of hydrogen reservoirs under emergency operating conditions. In: Proceedings of Conference EuroSun 2004 and 14th International ForumSun (14. Internationales Sonnenforum of DGS e. V.) – June 20-23, 2004 (Freiburg, Germany) and Intersolar 2004, June 24-26, 2004 (Freiburg, Germany). Germany. – 2004; 2-567:2-586.

168. .Gusev A. L. Low-temperature regeneration of cryoadsorption devices in thermoinsulated cavities of cryogenic tanks // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2004; 12.

169. .Gusev A. L. Flaw detection of large cryogenic objects, taking into account the effect of effusion-induced hydrogen instability of superinsulation // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2000; 1:103-8.

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171. .RF Patent No. 2027942. A method of maintaining vacuum in the heat-insulating cavity of a pipeline of the "pipe in pipe" type. Gusev A. L., Kupriyanov V. I. – Appl. 07/08/1991, No. 5018602/05, publ. BI No. 3, 01/27/95, MKI F16L 59/04.

172. .Gusev A. L. ISTC project No. 2026. Monograph “Electrosorption phenomena in screen-vacuum thermal insulation layers // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2004. – Issue 2. – Pp. 67-71.

173. .Gusev A. L. Chemical cartridges-hydrogen recombiners // Alternative Energy and Ecology (ISJAEE). – 2008; 4:122-5.

174. .RF Patent No. 2109261. Method for defectoscopy of a cryogenic vessel. Gusev A. L., Garkusha A. P., Kupriyanov V. I., Kryakovkin V. P., Shvanke D. V. – Appl. 27.02.96., No. 96103913/28, publ. 04/20/98., BI No. 11, 1998, MKI G01M3/28.

175. .RF Patent No. 2022204. Cryogenic tank and method for removing hydrogen from its vacuum cavity. Gusev A. L., Kudryavtsev I. I., Kryakovkin V. P., Kupriyanov V. I., Terekhov A. S. – Appl. 06/24/91., No. 4954398/26, publ. BI No. 20, 1994, MKI F17C3/08.

176. .RF Patent No. 2082910. Cryogenic tank and method for activating a chemical absorber before placing it in the heat-insulating cavity of a cryogenic tank. Gusev A. L., Kudryavtsev I. I., Kupriyanov V. I., Kryakovkin V. P., Terekhov A. S. – dec. 11/13/91., No. 5009266/26, publ. BI No. 18, 1997, MKI F17C3/00, 13/00.

177. .Gusev A. L., Kudryavtsev I. I., Kupriyanov V. I., Kryakovkin V. P., Terekhov A. S. RF Patent No. 2082911. Cryogenic tank. – Appl. 11/13/91., No. 5009089/25, publ. BI No. 18, 1997, MKI F17C3/08.

178. .Shvets N. N., Filippova A. V., Basov E. V. Energy security in the arctic zone /// the handbook of the arctic. A broad and comprehensive overview // Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. – 2022. – Pp. 323-48.

179. .Zhiznin S. Z., Shvets N. N., Timokhov V. M., Gusev V. M. Economics of hydrogen energy of green transition in the world and Russia. Part I // Int J Hydrogen Energy. – 2023; 48(57).

180. .Zhiznin S. Z., Cherechukin A. V. Economic and ecological facet of introduction the clean coal technoloies in China (Ekonomicheskie i ekologicheskie aspekty vnedreniya chistykh ugol'nykh tekhnologii v Kitae). Ugol'. – 2019; 3:56-9 (in Russ.).

181. .Shvets N., Shvets N., Philippova A., Kolesnik G. Globalization of the power sector as factor for sustainable development and energy security // Int J Energy Econ Pol. – 2020; 10(1):185-92.

182. .Egorov A. N., Anoshin D. M., Makarov D. A., Yurin V. E. Technical and economic justification for the use of a closed hydrogen cycle to expand the control range of a nuclear power plant // Int J Hydrogen Energy. – 2026:155309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2026.155309. ISSN 0360-3199, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360319926019476.

183. .Alkhalidi Ammar, Alyazouri Shatha, Almomani Belal, Olabi A. G., Alami Abdul Hai, Vũ Thanh Mai, Al-Halhouli Ala’aldeen, Khawaja Mohamad K. Nuclear hydrogen prospects in MENA region with economic insights // Int J Thermofluids. – 2026; 32:101568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijft.2026.101568. ISSN 2666- 2027, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S2666202726000248.

184. .U.S. Department of Energy. DOE hydrogen and fuel cells program, “program areas”. Accessed online: https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/program_areas. html; 2020.