Catalytic Reforming of Hydrocarbon Feedstocks for Hydrogen (H₂) Production: Thermophysical Optimization Using n-Heptane as a Model Compound. The global transition toward sustainable energy systems places hydrogen (H₂) at the forefront of scientific and technological innovation. As a clean fuel with high energy density and zero carbon emissions at the point of use, hydrogen (H2) is a key enabler in decarbonizing power generation, transportation, and industrial processes. However, the realization of a hydrogen (H2)-based economy requires scalable, efficient, and regionally adaptable production methods that minimize environmental impact and integrate seamlessly into existing infrastructure. This study presents a comprehensive theoretical and experimental analysis of hydrogen (H2) production via catalytic reforming of hydrocarbon feedstocks, with a focus on n-heptane as a model compound. The research addresses critical challenges in H2 generation, including reaction kinetics, heat and mass transfer, catalyst stability, and measurement accuracy under high-temperature and supercritical conditions that promote effective H2 release. The selection of n-heptane is based on its well-characterized thermophysical properties and its representativeness of heavier petroleum fractions, ensuring experimental reproducibility and applicability to real-world feedstocks for H2 production. Catalytic reforming of n-heptane initiates dehydrogenation reactions, leading to hydrogen (H2) release according to the scheme:  C₇H₁₆ ^ C₇H₁₄ + H2

The objective of this research is to validate the feasibility of producing hydrogen (H2) through thermocatalytic 4^4 reforming of n-heptane using a custom-designed experimental setup that simulates industrial conditions. The system enables precise control of temperature, pressure, flow rate, and catalyst composition, allowing systematic exploration of reaction regimes and their impact on H2 yield and selectivity. Special attention is given to supercritical conditions, which enhance convective heat transfer, accelerate reaction kinetics, and improve energy efficiency, positioning catalytic reforming as a promising alternative to conventional hydrogen (H2) production methods such as steam methane reforming (CH4 + H2O ^ CO + ЗН2), water electrolysis (2ЩО ^ 2H2 + O2), and biomass gasification. Experiments were conducted in vertical, horizontal, and inclined pipe configurations to investigate the influence of geometry on thermal gradients, fluid dynamics, and catalyst performance in H2 evolution. The integration of high- precision thermocouples, pressure sensors, flow meters, and electronic potentiometers enabled real-time data acquisition and rigorous error analysis, including deviations in temperature, pressure, and flow rate that affect the accuracy of H2 yield calculations. Catalytic reforming involves complex reactions - dehydrogenation, cracking, isomerization, and aromatization - all contributing to hydrogen (H2) release. For example: C7H16 + Heat + Catalyst ^ C₆H₆ + CH4 + H2

By analyzing n-heptane behavior under controlled thermal conditions, the study identifies optimal parameters that maximize H2 output while minimizing byproducts such as CO, CH4, and coke. The use of thermally stable and active catalysts ensures sustained performance over extended operational cycles, which is essential for industrial-scale H2 production. The adaptability of n-heptane as a feedstock is particularly relevant for regions with limited access to natural gas or renewable electricity, offering a transitional solution that leverages existing petrochemical resources for H2 generation. The experimental setup and methodology are designed for scalability, enabling integration into mobile hydrogen (H2) generators, decentralized energy systems, and retrofitted refinery units. Compared to steam methane reforming, which emits significant CO2, catalytic reforming under optimized conditions can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve energy efficiency. The study quantifies heat flux density, thermal losses, and conversion efficiency to assess the environmental footprint of the H2 production process. Detailed analysis of heat transfer coefficients, temperature transitions, and flow dynamics provides practical guidance for reactor design and process optimization aimed at efficient H2 release. The use of supercritical fluids as coolants and reaction media enhances heat transfer performance and enables compact, high-throughput reactor systems for H2 generation. To ensure the reliability of conclusions, the study incorporates a rigorous error analysis framework. This includes deviations in temperature readings, pressure fluctuations, flow rate variability, and signal noise in data acquisition systems - all of which influence the precision of H2 yield assessments. The analysis informs recommendations for improving measurement accuracy and enhancing the reliability of H2 production evaluations. In summary, this work strengthens the scientific and engineering foundations of hydrogen (H2) production via catalytic reforming of hydrocarbons. The results are relevant to academic researchers, industry stakeholders, policymakers, and energy strategists seeking practical solutions for the hydrogen (H2) transition. The article concludes with a forward-looking perspective on the role of catalytic reforming in the emerging hydrogen (H2) economy. The methodology presented can be adapted to various hydrocarbon sources, reactor designs, and operational contexts, making it a versatile tool in global efforts to decarbonize energy systems and scale H₂ production. By demonstrating the potential of catalytic reforming under high-temperature and supercritical conditions, this study contributes to the strategic advancement of hydrogen (H2) technologies. It highlights the importance of interdisciplinary research combining chemical engineering, thermodynamics, materials science, and environmental analysis. The findings pave the way for future innovations in reactor design, catalyst development, and process integration, ultimately supporting the realization of a sustainable, hydrogen (H2)-powered future.

This paper presents a neutron diffraction study of the isotopic effect and structure formation mechanisms in the TiN_0,26H_0,075D_0,075 solid solution. The goal of this study is to experimentally determine the crystal structure and order­ing s^,eque^, nce i^,n the combined isotopic composition, compare it with similar compositions containing only hydrogen or only deuterium, and investigate the contribution of deformation interactions and zero-point vibrations of atoms to the formation of ordered phases. The experimental program included the synthesis of samples by the Sieverts method, homogenizing annealing at 1475 K followed by quenching, X-ray verification of single-phase and detailed registration of neutron diffraction patterns on the DN 500 instrument at a wavelength Z = 1,085 A. Profile Rietveld analysis was performed in the FullProf program in order to refine the lattice parameters, atomic coordinates, interstitial occupancies and thermal factors. The results show that the TiN_0,26H_0,075D_0,075 sample exhibits an ordered layered structure described by the P3m1 space group when quenched from 1375 K, with an optimal order-disorder temperature of ~ 1375 K for this composition. Comparison with previously studied compositions TiN0 26H0₁₅(Tc ~ 1135 K) and TiN0 26H015 (Tc ~ 1275 K) demonstrates a steady trend of increasing the ordering temperature^, whe^, n H is replaced by D an^,d w^,hen a combined H/D composition is formed: In the series H0 15 ^ ^D0,15 ^ H0 075D0 075, there is a consistent increase in Tc (~ 1135 K ^ ~ 1275 K ^ ~ 1375 K). The lattice paramete rs also increase i n the same series: a and c demonstrate a small but statisti­cally significant expansion as the deuterium fraction increases and as the combined isotopic composition is introduced, indicating changes in the local deformations of the crystal lattice with different masses and amplitudes of thermal vi­brations of light elements. A full profile analysis shows that when describing the ordered phase of TiN₀₂₆H₀₀₇₅D₀₀₇₅, the optimal model assumes complete ordering of nitrogen atoms in octahedral positions 1a and the distribut^,ion o^, f hyd^, rogen and deuterium atoms predominantly between two types of tetrahedral positions 2d with different z coordinates, with a small fraction of deuterium (~ 0,061) localized in octahedral positions 1b that are not occupied by nitrogen. For H and D, the refined coordinates and occupancies were obtained: H predominantly occupies 2d with z ~ 0,732, D occupies 2d with z ~ 0,605 and partially 1b, which provides the best agreement between the experimental and calculated intensities. Attempts to assign an alternative distribution of isotopes lead to a significant increase in the incompatibility factor of the fit. This highlights the sensitivity of the neutron method to the difference in coherent cross-sections of H and D and the high reliability of the chosen structural model. The interpretation of the observations relies on two key factors. First, the predominance of the deformation interaction over the electronic interaction explains the directional change in Tc and lattice parameters when H is replaced by D and when isotopes are combined: isotopes with equal charges load the sublattices of non-metals differently due to differences in mass and zero-point oscillation amplitude, which enhances local deformations and increases the stability of the ordered phase. Secondly, the difference in zero-point fluctuations and root-mean-square displacements explains the selectivity of interstitial occupancy: heavier deuterium has a smaller amplitude of zero-point fluctuations, which makes it energetically favorable to occupy slightly different potential wells and, consequently, different positions in the structure compared to hydrogen. These two factors together contribute to the observed isotopic ordering and the increase in the order-disorder temperature. The work provides detailed values of lattice parameters, atomic coordinates, occupancies, thermal factors, and fit quality statistics (Rp, Rwp, Rexp, RBragg, %²), making the results reproducible with the original neutron diffraction patterns and fit parameters. Possible limitations of the study are discussed: the need to assess the contribution of microstructural stresses and crystallite sizes to the width of peaks, the influence of microheterogeneity of composition and the kinetics of ordering under fixed annealing temperature regimes. It is recommended for subsequent works to carry out temperature series in situ, an assessment of size/strain components of profiles and modern calculations of potential wells for H and D (for example, by DFT) to quantify the contributions of deformational and electronic interactions. In summary, the study demonstrates a new experimental example of isotopic ordering in the Ti-N-H/D system, refines the distribution of H and D in the ordered phase of TiN₀₂₆H₀₀₇₅D₀₀₇₅, and provides a well-founded link between the increase in ordering temperature and deforma­tion effects an^,d th^,e diff^, erences in zero-point vibrations of the isotopes. These results are significant for understanding the mechanisms of ordering in insertion alloys and for designing materials with controlled properties through isotopic and chemical regulation.

The growing share of renewable and nuclear energy sources in the generation structure exacerbates the problem of covering uneven daily electricity consumption, which has a significant impact on the price in wholesale electricity markets. With an increasing share of renewable energy sources, wholesale market prices become increasingly sensitive to meteorological conditions, which requires improvements in the operation of other power plants in the generation capacity structure. These trends require taking into account the effect of the introduction of new generating sources in the context of current system and market conditions. This study provides a comparative analysis of the load factor of generating capacities and the dynamics of prices in wholesale electricity markets in a number of developed countries with different energy strategies and pricing policies. The study focuses on the United Kingdom, the United States, France, and the Russian Federation, which represent different approaches to the development of the energy sector and the integration of renewable energy sources. A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of introducing an additional maneuverable gas turbine, combined-cycle gas turbine, and integrating an economizer preheater into a nuclear power plant in order to increase the power output and expand the control range of the power unit has been performed. The results obtained indicate that improving the maneuverability of nuclear power plants is more efficient than introducing new organic fuel-based generating capacities.

The modern energy system is aimed at the use of carbon-free energy sources in all directions - industry, transport, aviation, domestic sphere. The long-term practice of development of carbon-free generating solutions in the direction of hydropower, wind energy, solar light and solar thermal energy, high-temperature geothermal energy shows the viability of a carbon-free technological order, identifies shortcomings and at the same time creates a clear understanding of the correctness of a carbon-free technological order in the development of clean energy of the planet. An extremely urgent scientific and technical task at all times of the development of mankind is the task of extracting energy in all its forms and using energy in all possible ways both for the development of mankind, what its reasonable part is doing, and for its destruction, which is the lot of the insane part of humanity. The scientific thought of mankind has always worked and is working in the direction of understanding the essence of energy. The trend of development of the modern world is slowly but steadily oriented towards non-waste, carbon-free renewable energy sources, such as solar radiation, ground, air and water thermal energy resources.

Physical basis of low-temperature power generation:

The main renewable carbon-free source of energy on planet Earth is the sun. The second much less significant heat source is the energy of the core of our planet.

Specific solar power coming to the total surface of the Earth is 1367 W/m2.

Heat the Earth model assumes that the power of the core is about 16 TW, and the specific power delivered to the Earth’s surface 0,03-0,05 W/m2. Compared to the energy coming from the Sun, the amount of energy coming from the Earth’s inner molten core is substantially small.

Other renewable energy sources - wind and hydraulic as well as non-renewable accumulated over millions of years (coal, peat, oil, gas) - are derived from the transformation and accumulation of thermonuclear solar energy.

Actual data on the world use of energy are presented in the figure.From which it follows that coal and hydrocarbons are 86,7% Carbon-free energy, including nuclear 13,3%.

A promising technological way, namely, carbon-free generation of electric energy from low-temperature sources (solar radiation, air, soil, water, excess heat of nuclear power plants and industrial complexes) allows to provide most of the world’s demand for electricity.

Then it is proposed to consider the theory of energy in the aspect of the motion of the corpuscles of matter (mol­ecules, atoms, elementary particles), to analyze the essence of the Maxwell’s Demon principle, to consider examples of the technical implementation of the principle, to substantiate and propose an actual formulation of the second law of thermodynamics. To propose an experimentally confirmed technology and a technical solution for the high-efficiency generation of electric energy from low-temperature environmental sources - air, soil, water, constantly renewable en­ergy of the Sun.

Given the depletion of fossil fuel raw materials, as well as the non-renewability and instability of these fuel resources, the study of alternative energy sources is currently a global challenge. At the same time, the study of renewable energy is of great importance in terms of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. Among the various renewable energy sources, biomass (plants and their residues, waste) has attracted attention due to its potential to reduce the harmful impact of fossil fuels on the environment. Among the various fuels derived from biomass, biodiesel has great potential as a technological alternative to petroleum-based diesel fuel for green energy. Biodiesel is a renewable, sustainable, biodegradable, non-toxic, and clean energy source. Biodiesel is a diesel fuel based on long-chain alkyl esters of vegetable or animal oils and is formed by the chemical reaction of lipids with alcohol, resulting in the formation of fatty acid esters. The research involved the transesterification of oils obtained from pomegranate seeds, a waste product of AZGRANATA LLC, a company operating in Azerbaijan, into biodiesel fuel using Dash Salahli bentonite, mined in the Gazakh region of Azerbaijan and activated as a heterogeneous catalyst. The yield of biodiesel obtained as a result of the transesterification reaction carried out for 2 hours at a temperature of 220 °C with an oil to methanol molar ratio of 1:10 in the presence of a modified 5% CaO/bentonite catalyst was 93,5%. Various physicochemical properties of pomegranate seed oil, used in the production of biodiesel and obtained by cold pressing, were determined. The physicochemical properties of pomegranate seed biodiesel were analyzed using various physicochemical methods, and a comparative study was conducted to determine its compliance with the international standards ASTM D 6751 (American Society for Testing and) and EN 14214 (European standard). Its physicochemical properties were determined: density 880 kg/m³, kinematic viscosity 4,5 mm²/s, cetane number 55 and heat of combustion 40,6 MJ/kg.

This paper presents an analysis of the Sakhalin Hydrogen Testbed - the first integrated platform in Russia designed for the validation and demonstration of hydrogen technologies. The testbed covers the entire hydrogen value chain, in­cluding production, storage, transportation, and end-use applications, thereby bridging the gap between laboratory-scale research (TRL 1-4) and industrial deployment (TRL 7-9). At the base site, a 297 kW solar photovoltaic power plant supplies electricity to a 30 Nm3/h electrolyzer. The produced hydrogen is stored in composite cylinders at pressures up to 70 MPa and delivered to dedicated test benches for fuel cells and demonstration units. An experimental refue­ling station enables hydrogen fueling of a 200 L tank («7,5 kg H2) within <25 minutes, with compressor throughput >30 m3/h, in compliance with SAE J2601 standards. Remote pilot sites include a backup power system for a telecommu­nications tower using a 5 kW PEM fuel cell, providing up to 72 h of autonomous operation under grid outage conditions. A hybrid wind-hydrogen microgrid integrates a 250 kW wind turbine, a 20 Nm3/h electrolyzer, a 30 kW PEM fuel cell, and a 50 kWh vanadium redox flow battery. This system supplies up to 85% of the annual demand for a ~150 kW load while reducing generation costs by more than 60% compared with diesel. Mobile hydrogen-based systems for emer­gency response incorporate a 10 kW PEM fuel cell, a 20 kWh lithium-ion battery, a 15 kW modular photovoltaic array, and a 70 MPa hydrogen storage module in composite cylinders, enabling autonomous operation of a field camp for up to 10 days. The testbed serves as an integrated technical and educational infrastructure, supporting standardization, val­idation of hydrogen technologies under extreme conditions, and workforce training, thereby accelerating the industrial deployment of hydrogen solutions in energy-isolated regions.

The study is devoted to the conversion of thermal power plants from cogeneration to combined production of heat, electricity and hydrogen using the method of methane steam reforming.

The relevance of the work is due to the need for correct distribution of fuel costs between fundamentally different products in multi-generation energy systems in order to optimize and determine equipment loading modes.

The research methods include the analysis and synthesis of knowledge about the existing methodology for calculat­ing specific fuel consumption and material and energy balances of thermal power plants and methane steam reforming units (MSRU), as well as simulation modeling of the thermal circuit of a steam power plant in the program «United Cycle».

The existing methodology for calculating specific fuel consumption has been improved to assess technical and economic indicators for the combined production of three products. The methodology was tested on the example of Severnaya TPP-21 (St. Petersburg) using a digital twin of the plant.

The results show an increase in energy efficiency: an increase in the fuel heat utilization factor by 0,10-0,43% and a decrease in total fuel consumption while maintaining production volumes. The integration of the MSRU allows for a decrease in the thermal power of its furnace by 28% and a reduction in losses in condensers. The efficiency of integration depends on the seasonal operating mode of the station and the scale of hydrogen production. The proposed methodology and digital modeling tools allow for technical and economic analysis and optimization of operating modes of energy technology complexes, ensuring a scientifically sound choice of integration parameters for specific operating conditions

The conversion of thermal power plants (TPPs) to alternative fuels, including hydrogen, is a generally recognized direction of decarbonization of the electric power industry. An obstacle to this is the price ratio of hydrogen and fossil fuels. Optimization of technologies and infrastructure of the hydrogen production-storage-transportation-consumption cycle will allow minimizing this difference in the future. Hydrogen production by gasification of municipal solid waste (MSW) at thermal power plants has great potential. The use of simulation modeling methods makes it possible to qualitatively assess the impact of the MSW-hydrogen installation on the operating modes and technical and economic indicators (TEI) of thermal power plants. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the potential of MSW utilization with hydrogen production at combined-cycle thermal power plants (CCGTs) for the conditions of the Moscow Region (MRg). The potential volumes of MSW utilization, hydrogen production and resources consumed were determined. A simulation model of a typical CCGT-450 power unit has been developed and the impact of the MSW-hydrogen installation on the technical and economic performance and marginal profit of the thermal power plant has been analyzed. An indicator was proposed and calculated to assess the effect of the regime factor on the price of hydrogen. Studies have shown that annually in the Moscow region, 4 million tons of MSW can be processed into 0,09-0,24 million tons of hydrogen. This will require 0,53-0,63 million tons of steam and from 0,27 to 33,40 million tons of cooling water. For CCGT-450, steam extraction for the MSW-hydrogen installation will lead to a decrease in the fuel and heat utilization coefficient (FHUC) by 1-2% and a decrease in marginal profit from 6,0 thousand rubles/h to 25,6 thousand rubles/h. To compensate for the decrease in margin profit resulting from the operating factor, the price of hydrogen should be increased by 463­4847 rubles/ton.

An experimental design of the autonomous ion-exchange unit IOU-4F has been developed, featuring full integration of all technological stages - filtration, ionite loosening, regeneration, and rinsing - within a single compact module made of corrosion-resistant polymers. The unit is intended for selective and comprehensive treatment of industrial wastewater to remove heavy metal ions and salts using renewable energy sources. Power supply from a photovoltaic panel ensures energy autonomy up to 98,5% at an average annual insolation of 5,0 kWh/m2/day, typical for Central Asia, along with a significant reduction in operating costs and carbon footprint. Experimental studies confirmed pollutant removal efficien­cy at the level of 99%. The development contributes to the creation of domestic energy-efficient equipment aligned with global sustainable development goals in alternative energy, water purification, and industrial ecology.

Models of the selection and allocation of resources of the energy-saving management information system are constructed. The system modeling of the tasks of selection and allocation of resources is carried out, the synthesis of a meta-model of the system of selection and allocation of resources in conditions of substitution and conflict is carried out. A resource allocation has been built to ensure the lifecycle of an energy-efficient management information system.