SCIENTIFIC REVIEWS
This paper will describe the structure of the system, from energy generation and hydrogen production through distribution to the end users. It will show how stationary energy users will convert to hydrogen and will outline ancillary uses of hydrogen to aid in reducing other forms of pollution. It will show that the adoption of the fusion hydrogen energy system will facilitate the use of renewable energy such as wind and solar. The development of highly efficient fuel cells for production of electricity near the user and for transportation will be outlined. The safety of the hydrogen fusion energy system is addressed. This paper will show that the combination of fusion generation combined with hydrogen distribution will provide a system capable of virtually eliminating the negative impact on the environment from the use of energy by humanity. In addition, implementation of the energy system will provide techniques and tools that can ameliorate environmental problems unrelated to energy use.
ВОЗОБНОВЛЯЕМАЯ ЭНЕРГЕТИКА. СОЛНЕЧНАЯ ЭНЕРГЕТИКА
The paper presents the methods and technologies of development of the computational systems for forecasting of solar power plants (SP) work in the meteorological conditions dependence. The artificial neural networks included into the analytical platform “Deductor” which has a wide range of methods for the pre-treatment of data, methods for preliminary data analysis, and data modeling are used to create forecasting systems. These systems are based on the results of the unique continuous four-year multi-parameter monitoring of SP characteristics and meteorological conditions. The following variables: voltage, current in the load circuit and power, solar radiation, external temperature, humidity, dew point, wind speed, wind direction, wind chill index, heating index, index of “temperature + humidity + wind”, index of “temperature + humidity + wind + solar radiation”, atmospheric pressure, ultraviolet index, and index of evaporation – have been registering by the monitoring system. The power density and the value of the conversion coefficient of solar energy into electrical energy are determined additionally. The paper describes two variants of the multifactor computational models for forecasting the power density and the conversion coefficient in the meteorological conditions dependence. The first variant uses the full set of recorded meteorological conditions. The second variant uses the limited set of meteorological conditions available from the forecast of the Hydro Meteorological Center of the Russian Federation. The paper gives the application examples of both variants of forecasting systems. These forecasting systems can be used not only for the direct prediction of the SP work, but also for the zoning of the Russian Federation territory from the perspectives of SP building. The importance of this approach lies in the fact that it is not a question of the generally accepted zoning of the Russian Federation territory in the solar radiation level dependence, but of zoning in terms of power density and the conversion coefficient of solar energy into electrical one. The proposed approach can be used to forecast of wind power plants work, work of thermodynamic installations using solar energy, and other devices of alternative energetic.
The paper deals with an original model of solar radiation incident on an arbitrarily oriented surface. This model has been designed to predict the main characteristics of solar radiation for any geographical point in Russia. The model is based on the isotropic model developed by Liu and Jordan and enables the researches to determine the values of solar radiation incident on an arbitrarily oriented surface at any given time period with the sampling interval of one second. The model implies the use of numerical values of the atmospheric transparency index and the surface albedo obtained from the NASA SSE (Surface meteorology and Solar Energy) database as initial data to ensure precise modeling of the incident solar radiation values including those for regions with no systematic actinometric observations. The paper presents the results of modeling the average daily values of solar radiation for ten Russian settlements located in the region between latitude of 43–62ºN and longitude of 50–158ºE. In order to verify the adequacy of the model, the results of instrumental terrestrial actinometric measurements are taken from meteorological stations included in the World Meteorological Organization network. The verification results show that the average relative model error for the considered meteorological stations does not exceed 11.7% for total solar radiation and 24.5% for scattered radiation. The authors developed the histograms of modeling errors in comparison with data from the World Radiation Data Center and NASA SSE. The analysis of the histograms revealed no systematic errors in the model since the errors were distributed uniformly and symmetrically with respect to the zero level. The paper compares the results of modeling the diurnal variation of solar radiation for 4 typical months of the year in Yekaterinburg with data from the World Radiation Data Center published in the periodic bulletin “Solar Radiation and Radiation Balance Data (The World Network)”. The developed model is implemented as a separate subsystem in MatLab/Simulink to enable its integration into the general model of the energy complex of an arbitrary configuration. The model can be used for studies concerned with the design, development and improvement of the energy systems including solar energy installations.
Wind Energy
Orthogonal windmills and hydro units of big capacity and high power efficiency are offered. The units can have rather great individual capacity and at the solution of many technical problems should provide high efficiency of power. The paper draws attention to the fact that the actual efficiency of the aggregates significantly depends on their design and can considerably differ from the given estimates. In orthogonal power installations, at which diameter of the route of movement of blades much more than their height (length), the flow speed before the rear blades may be the same as in front of unit. The test and calculations confirm it. The system proposed in this paper has the high efficiency of converting wind or water flow energy, that achieved by turbulent transport of current energy in the vertical direction and the restoration due to this velocity field in front of the back action of the blades.
SMALL HYDROENERGETICS
NONRENEWABLE ENERGY, ATOMIC ENERGY
The paper discusses the phenomena and processes occurring in the industrial, power and research uraniumgraphite nuclear reactors at heat removal trouble, clad damage and technological channel dewatering. The authors describe the accidental situations leading to build-up of the fragments of irradiated nuclear fuel in graphite stack of the Magnox, HTR, AGR reactors and B and N reactors in Hanford. The processes occurring at serious fuel element bridging which consisting of metal uranium are best documented. Moreover, the paper analyzes the possible chemical compounds of metal uranium with fuel element case, technological channel material, steam gas mixture, water and graphite stack. The authors adduce data on qualitative composition of compounds that could contain accidental release of nuclear fuel in the graphite stack. Such data were obtained by thermodynamic method based on the principle of the entropy maximum. It was shown that at reaching the melting temperature of metal uranium various solid and gaseous chemical compounds such as oxides, hydrates, carbides and others could form, but their concentration and amount depend on temperature inside of the graphite stack. The paper also shows the mathematical model of dewatering and steam lock of technological channel of the B and N type reactors. Aforementioned model follows the non-stationary heat transfer equation with Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions. Solution algorithm of this equation is realized in Ansys Fluent and Matlab. It was clearly shown that UO2 is the main product that build-up in the graphite stack at the heat removal trouble, clad damage and technological channel dewatering. Furthermore, it is possible to form the gaseous products such as CO, CH4 and H2, and it is unlikely to form the compound of metal uranium and hydrogen (tritium). The results could be used in choosing the way of treatment of irradiated graphite in particular at the disassembling graphite stack.
HYDROGEN ECONOMY
The paper investigates the samples of Ni-B and Ni-In composites in the form of films synthesized by an electrochemical method having a high degree of defectiveness and shows the electrochemical processes for their preparation, in which the experimental data of the influence doping additions of boron and indium on the hydrogen permeabilities of synthesized electrochemical complexes based on nickel Nix-By-Hz and Nix-Iny-Hz are given. It is shown that by creating traps (structural, impurity) for hydrogen by introducing additional elements into the metal structure or by changing the structure (intermetallides), also by other methods, the hydrogen solubility of the metal can be changed to a greater or lesser extent depending on the technical requirements. Ni-B samples were obtained in the sulfamate nickel electrolyte using boron compounds of the class of higher polyhedral borates Na2B10H10. The use of nano forming boron additives provides a measured hydrogen content in Nix-By-Hz samples about of 600 cm3 / 100 g. Nickel - indium composites were obtained by electrolytic deposition on copper substrates (0.05 mm thick), with electrolyte composition: NiSO4×7H2O = 140 g / l; Na2SO4×10H2O=20 g / l; and In2 (SO4) 3 which concentration varied from 1 g / l to 12 g / l. Variations in the amount of In2(SO4)3 ensured the production of Ni-In composites with different component ratios. The obtained data made it possible to select the optimal mode of deposition of Ni-In plating in the In2(SO4)3 electrolyte. In order to determine the effect of each of the electrodeposition parameters on the properties of the samples, only one parameter varies: either the cathode current density or the concentration of indium in the electrolyte. The samples of different concentrations of In are synthesized and studied. Their phase composition was determined. Xray phase analysis reveals in the Ni-In composites synthesized from electrolytes with In2(SO4)3 concentration of more than 2 g / l, a phase corresponding to the intermetallide η-In27Ni10. For the first time in the practice of studying sorption, electrochemical composites Nix-Iny, including subsequent thermal desorption of hydrogen, are studied by implanting deuterium into the samples. It is demonstrated spectra of deuterium thermal desorption from Ni70In30Dx composites, which allowed determining the temperature ranges of desorption of ion-implanted deuterium depending on the dose of implantation. It is confirmed that a Ni 70In30 composite capable of retaining doped deuterium (hydrogen) has been obtained. It is shown that it is permissible to obtain samples of a Nix-Iny-Dz composite with a deuterium content of up to 2 at. D/at. Met, that corresponds to 5.3 wt. % (for composites of this composition).
The paper deals with the hydrogen fuel cells that are one of the important directions of development of the global energy. Hydrogen fuel cells are being actively implemented in the aviation systems, for example in Airbus A320 (Boeing and Airbus announced the creation of an auxiliary power unit fuel cell with capacity up to 200 kW in 2017-2018). In the automotive industry, hydrogen fuel cells are also widely used. However, the efficient use of hydrogen fuel cells is not possible without the establishment of effective systems related to their operation. Therefore, the paper proposes a new topology of high-speed motor for compressor of the hydrogen fuel cell and presents an original solution to raise the energy efficiency of high-speed motor, based on the amorphous alloys. The research of the new design methods of computer modeling in Ansys Maxwell was conducted; optimal geometric dimensions of the high-speed motor with two-pole and four-pole magnetic system were obtained. In the modeling losses on eddy currents in permanent magnets and iron of the rotor for two-pole and four-pole magnetic systems were taken into account. All the theoretical results have been experimentally verified. For this purpose, the layout of the high-speed motor with the perforated winding was created. Design of the experimental model is also described. The high-speed motor testing and analysis of test data take a special place in this paper. In the experimental tests, it was found that the efficiency of the topology is 92.8 % and the power density of the high-speed motor is 0.21 kg/kWh with air cooling. These experimental tests prove the effectiveness of the topology compared to the known world analogues. Moreover, the use of this topology is proven to allow minimizing the mass of a hydrogen fuel cell with improved energy efficiency. This is especially important for the aerospace applications and automotive industry.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ENERGY, ENERGY AND ECOLOGY
The paper develops the assessment methods of CO2 emission efficiency of the combined productions and the energy supply systems, and the ways of efficiency improvement. These methods allow determining the specific indicators of the supplied products, that makes it possible to compare the efficiency of productions and energy supply systems of the different companies and countries, and to define their future target indicators. The technique is suitable for the productions with any set of equipment. Practical application of the suggested efficiency criteria will contribute to the transition to the “green” energy and economy along the most effective trajectory of their modernization. Thus, we can rank the planned measures by the efficiency and the priority of implementation. The paper can be interesting to the power engineering specialists, businesspersons and economists, and participants of the UN Paris Climate Change Agreement to determine the future specific indicators of greenhouse gases emissions. The paper presents the innovative technology of introducing the wind power plants to the energy supply systems by means of using unstabilized wind-based power for direct fuel substitution in thermal cycles of combined cycle plants. As a result, fuel consumption and CO2 emissions are reduced. The wind power plants inclusion in the electric grid through the thermal power plants allows us to avoid solving the problems of maintaining power quality and operating reserve of the wind power plants capacity in the power system and to use the wind energy at the plants of combined heat and high-quality electric power production. These the wind and fuel power complexes can replace the nuclear and fuel power plants. At the same time, the producers of the traditional power equipment get chance to expand the business instead of his reduction owing to replacement by the renewable sources and hydrogen energy.
The paper represents the energy conversion schemes that ecoenergetics unites. This term refers to any ways to obtain clean energy that does not cause pollution of the environment. The example of Turkmenistan provides a scientifically grounded analysis of the results of calculating energy resources, reveals the reasons for the need for renewable energy sources, major tasks and trends towards the development of alternative types of energy. Moreover, the paper shows the maps of gross, technical, economic and environmental potentials. Different types of renewable energy sources are considered separately. The paper gives information on the arrival of solar radiation, and uses data on the technical potential of thermal energy and photoelectric batteries when evaluating the potential of solar energy, and shows the average monthly ambient temperature during daytime (operating time of installations). The paper represents the preliminary calculations of the payback period of wind power plants. The time of recovery and the economic effect of using a wind power plant are generally determined by including the coefficient of the regional environmental factor. In addition, the hydropower, bioenergy and geothermal potential of Turkmenistan are considered.
OPTICAL PHENOMENA AND FACILITIES
The paper studies the effective mass and statistics of two-dimensional electrons in the InAs / AlSb heterostructure in the quantum well approximation of finite depth, and takes into account the nonparabolicity of the conduction band in the two-band Kane model. Moreover, the author proposes an approximate method for calculating the dispersion and the effective mass of an electron at the Fermi level for a two-dimensional electron gas depending on the total concentration and width of the quantum well. Numerical results were obtained for QWs based on the InAs / AlSb heterojunction. Some characteristics of the two-dimensional electron gas are calculated with the help of this dispersion. A simplified approximation of the dispersion is proposed. Based of the derived approximation, simpler formulas were obtained for the effective electron mass at the Fermi level and the equation for the concentration. For QWs (based on InAs / AlSb) with a width L> 50 nm, the approximate formulas are completely satisfactory. This statement is supported by the graphs, where the approximations obtained are compared with more accurate results and experimental data. This approximation makes it possible to study the kinetic, optical, and magnetic properties of two-dimensional electron gas.